FALL 2005
HISTORY 312
MWF, 12:35-1:25, FH-105
Zouhair Ghazzal
Crown 552, M, 3:00-4:15
(or by appointment)
(773) 508-3493
http://www.luc.edu/depts/history/ghazzal/ghazzal.htm
This
course is an analysis of the main forces that empowered the expansion of Islam
as a religious and social system in the Arabian peninsula, providing later for
the logistics of the Islamic “conquests,” futûhât, into a series of rapid
and overwhelming “successes,” while attempting at integrating
populations with different religious, linguistic, ethnic and economic
structures. The outcome was the creation of large empires, in the line of
previous defunct pre-Islamic empires such as the Roman, Byzantine, and
Sassanian, but with new elements brought to their bureaucratic, economic, and
social structures. We shall focus on two such empire-formations, the
Umayyâd and ‘Abbâsid in particular (the rise of the Mamluk
and Ottoman dynasties shall be touched upon very briefly in interlude for the
modern Middle East). The bulk of our material belongs to the social history
genre, both descriptive and analytical, beginning with Maxime Rodinson’s
life of the prophet Muhammad, and the social and political history of the early
Islamic empires, in addition to the main cultural and intellectual trends in
the sciences, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, the arts and sufism.
Islam
as a religious “message” came into being in the Arabian peninsula
in the first half of the seventh century, in a region located between two
powerful empires, the Sassanian and Byzantine, and whose social structures
were, and still are, “tribal,” hence based on family and kinship
affiliations and loyalties. In the Islamic view of the world, the one based on
the Qur’ân and hadîth, the sayings and doings of the prophet
Muhammad (both sources are considered as the scriptures of Islam), the prophet
(ca. 570-632) was only a “medium” through which God
“revealed” his “message” to humanity. Thus the act of
“revelation,” wahî, is considered central to the ancient and modern
Islamic mythologies. The opening verses (âyât) of chapters (sûra-s) 96 and 74 of the
Qur’ân are generally recognized as the oldest revelations (the
timing and method of “editing” the Qur’ân are both
hotly debated issues among scholars, with some placing the final
“editing,” which presumably did not respect the time sequence of
the chapters, as late as the early ‘Abbâsid period);
Muhammad’s vision is mentioned in 53:1-18 and 81:19-25, and the night of
the first revelation in 97:1-5 and 44:3. At first in private and then publicly,
Muhammad began to proclaim his message: that there is but one God and that
Muhammad is His messenger, rasûl. Thus right from the beginning,
Muhammad’s message was “religious,” in the sense that it
challenged the beliefs of pagan society that worshipped a multitude of Gods. Of
course, Muhammad’s monotheism had nothing unique since it was preceded by
the Judeo-Christian traditions—and the Qur’ân is full of
references to both—but the Qur’ân introduced, however, a new
way of worshipping God, in addition to a concept of “sin” so
radically different from previous monotheistic (and pagan) traditions, that a
new concept of man-God relationship had emerged.
But
the main impact of Islam, however, was social and political, involving such
crucial things as the political entity of the umma; strict rules of
inheritance between the sexes, members of the same family and clan, and between
generations; a list of “duties,” known as the “five
pillars” that involve pilgrimage, fasting, almsgiving, praying, and the shahâda; and military
expansionism in the form of a jihadic ideology. It is therefore not surprising
to learn that Muhammad’s “message” was met with a great deal
of resistance in his home town of Mecca (where the Ka‘ba, originally a pagan
monument celebrating pilgrimage, truce among warring factions, and free trade,
was located) to the point that the prophet decided to move to Medina, a city
about 250 miles north (called Yathrib at the time). This move, mythologically
referred to as the hijra, emigration, took place in 622, the first year
of the Muslim calendar. (Muslim dates are usually preceded by a.h., “Anno Hegirae,” the
year of the hijra.) From Medina, it took the prophet ten years, since the hijra
in 622 until his sudden death in 632, to lay down the foundations of Islam as a
religion and state ideology.
Concerning
this course in particular, let me start by a general remark about the title
itself: “Introduction to Islamic History” might indeed give the
false impression that there is some entity called “Islam” that
needs to be defined and analyzed as such, i.e. as a “totality” or
as a “spirit” that conserved itself over the centuries. By
contrast, in a title like A History of Islamic Societies, which is borrowed from
the survey book by Ira Lapidus, published in 1988, an explicit recognition is
made of a multitude of Islamic experiences that evolved historically; and the
discovery of these diverse experiences in time and space shall be our main
concern throughout this course. Moreover, the process of Islamicization of
societies as diverse as the Byzantine provinces of the Fertile Crescent, or the
Zoroastrian societies of the Sassanian Empire, or the fragmented societies of
North Africa, has never been fully implemented, meaning that lots of the
customary practices that survive until this day were of non-Islamic origin; not
to forget that “Islam” also implies different practices in
different terrains. We would therefore analyze Islamic practices within various
historical and regional variations and meanings rather than Islam in general.
The
fifteen centuries of Islamic histories (including the pre-Islamic century known
as Jâhiliyya, ignorance) are contained within discrete
“periods”—period is here taken in a straightforward sense,
that of a historical time dominated by a ruling dynasty, or a “pattern of
government,” which may or may not involve structural changes
vis-à-vis other time frameworks (many of which are, for instance,
challenged in Hodgson’s Venture of Islam): 1. The prophetic
mission and the establishment of the first Islamic communities in the Arabian
peninsula. 2. The Islamic “conquests,” or more accurately the
“openings,” futûhât. 3. The defeat of the
followers of ‘Alî ibn Abû Tâlib, son-in-law and cousin
of the prophet, which in practice meant the subservience of the
Shî‘is to Sunni dynasties, and their consecration as a minority
sect, beginning with the first Islamic empire, the Umayyad, with Damascus as
its capital (661-750). 4. The transfer of power from the Umayyads to the
‘Abbâsids, in the wake of the so-called Abbasid revolution in 750,
with Baghdâd becoming the new capital of the empire. 5. With the
‘Abbâsids, Islamic civilization was at its best—in particular
the early ‘Abbâsid period in 750-833, known as the
“golden” era of Islam, which witnessed the formation and maturation
of philosophy, theology, soufism, jurisprudence, hadith editing, the arts and
“sciences” as well. 6. The beginning of dismantlement of the
‘Abbâsid empire into rival entities (833-945), a period
particularly notorious for the power of the mamâlîk who were slave born
soldiers, and who later ruled in Syria and Egypt; in 945 the Shii Buwayhids
took power in Baghdad, transforming the Abbasid caliph into a mere puppet; and
then in 1055 it was the turn of the Seljuk Turks to conquer Baghdad, both
events had unearthed the militaristic tendencies in Islamic civilization; finally,
the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 put an end to the old style
of empire formation. 7. After several mini-dynasties ruling for brief periods
of time (e.g. the Fatimids and Ayyubids), a new political status quo with
quasi-“unification” schemes of the central territories came into
existence with the rise and empowerment of the Mamluks and then the Ottomans on
the eastern Mediterranean. 8. The majority of the Arab lands lived under
Ottoman rule for four centuries, an experience of tremendous consequences on
their modern colonial and postcolonial history. 9. The dismantlement of the
Ottoman empire after World War I and the establishment, until WWII, of the
French and British colonial rules. 10. The end of WWII also meant, for the
majority of the Arab countries, the end of colonial rule and the first
postcolonial “national” states—some like Algeria received
their independence much later (1956). 11. The present period is that of
postcolonial failed “national” states, dominated in the majority of
cases by state ruled economies and military and/or tribal dictatorships.
There
are several methods to write such a complex history. Two are of particular
interest for our purposes. The first would consist of a broad political
history, not the chronological type, but a Tocquevillian type of analysis.
(I’ve mentioned a western author that you might be familiar with, but a
more accurate description would be a “Khaldunian” type of
history—in reference to Ibn Khaldûn, the 14th-century Arab
historian from the Maghrib.) Such a history would be primarily concerned with
stable or unstable state formations from the point of view of their dynastic
lineages. In other words, in order to make our analysis possible, we’ll
have to imagine the political as an “autonomous” sphere with its
own modus operandi and logic. We would thus analyze, say, the
‘Abbâsid empire from the standpoint of dynasties “coming
together” and being subservient to one other: What was the logic behind
this type of rule, and how did it hold together for long periods? What notion
of the political stood behind this type of state formation? What type of
political representations emerged? How did this type of society produce such a
polity?
This
is obviously very different from the chronological history that we’re
familiar with and which presupposes that what comes “after” is
explained by what was there “before”—a “natural”
unfolding of events as history. The political history we’ll be aiming at
requires a much more abstract and analytical work.
The
second alternative would be some kind of social history: a study of social and
economic structures and their evolution in space and time. The work of Fernand
Braudel on the expansion of European capitalism between the 15th and 18th
centuries naturally comes to mind. Time is here considered as multi-layered,
where the social structures, in contrast to the political, evolve very slowly
and have a tempo of their own. Social agglomerations like cities, villages and
countrysides, and institutions like the family, the judiciary, and land tenure
could be studied within a Braudelian horizon, i.e. extensively and over several
centuries.
It
is of course impossible to cover such material in a general course, and our
approach shall be necessarily eclectic. For instance, there’s a great
deal of chronology in the early Islamic history, with the rise of Islam and the
“conquests.” A pure social history would therefore be inappropriate
because it would fail encompassing ideological and political tensions, or, in
short, to explicate what made Islam as a worldly religion possible. By
contrast, the Ottoman empire, with its less than colorful political and
intellectual life would be more apt for a socio-economic analysis.
There
are weekly readings that we’ll discuss collectively in class. Your
participation is essential for the success of the course. You might also be
occasionally requested to prepare a presentation on a chapter or book from the
weekly assignments. A presentation of the term-paper is also requested.
In
addition to the two-draft free-topic paper (see below the section on papers),
you’ll have to submit three interpretive essays based on our weekly
readings: you’ll receive sets of questions for each. The final grade
is averaged as one-fifth for each of the five papers. All interpretive
essays are take-home and you’ll be given a week to submit them. The purpose of the
interpretative essays is to give you the opportunity to go “beyond”
the literal meaning of a text and adopt interpretive and “textual”
techniques. A failing grade in all interpretive essays means also a failing
grade for the course, whatever your performance in the term-paper is. All
essays and papers must be submitted on time according to the deadlines set
below.
|
First
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Second
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Final Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Preliminary paper draft |
20% |
|
Term Paper |
20% |
·
It
is essential that you complete all readings on time, and that you come to class
well prepared. Always come to class with the required book: we’ll discuss
all readings extensively.
·
The
first, second, and final interpretive essays are all based on our weekly
readings. They all consist of a single essay for which you’ll receive the
appropriate questions at the dates below, and you’ll submit them in class
a week later.
·
The
question handouts will only be distributed in class—no email
communication.
·
For
all five papers follow the procedures outlined below in the section on papers.
·
Essays
and papers are to be submitted only in class. Do not send any material as an
attached e-mail file or otherwise.
·
It’s
your responsibility to submit all essays and papers on time at the deadlines
below. Late papers will be graded accordingly, and papers submitted a week
after the deadline will be graded F.
·
Each
non-submitted paper will receive the grade of F, and your final grade will be
averaged accordingly.
·
The
mid-term paper is a free-topic exercise that you should begin researching as
soon as possible.
•
Week 1: August 29, 31, September 2
Maxime
Rodinson, Muhammad, New Press
2002, 1565847520.
•
Week 2: September 7, 9
Rodinson (continued)
•
Week 3: September 12, 14, 16
Wilferd
Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad,
Cambridge UP 1998, 0521646960.
•
Week 4: September 19, 21, 23
Madelung (continued)
September 23: first interpretive essay
•
Week 5: September 26, 28, 30
Jonathan
P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam,
Cambridge UP 0521588138.
•
Week 6: October 3 (no classes on October 5 & 7)
Berkey (continued)
•
Week 7: October 12 & 14
Berkey (continued)
•
Week 8: October 17, 19, 21
Michael
Cook, Forbidding Wrong in Islam,
Cambridge UP 2003, 0521536022.
•
Week 9: October 24, 26, 28
Ghazali,
al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism,
Fons Vitae 2000, 1887752307.
October 28: second interpretive essay
•
Week 10: October 31, November 2 & 4
Roy
Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in Early Islamic Society, I.B. Tauris 2001, 1860641814.
•
Week 11: November 7, 9, 11
Mottahedeh (continued)
Patricia
Crone, Pre-industrial Societies,
Blackwell 0631156623.
•
Week 12: November 14, 16, 18
Crone (continued)
November 18: first draft deadline
•
Week 13: November 21
Crone (continued)
•
Week 14: November 28 & 30, December 2
Crone (continued)
December 2: final interpretive essay
•
Week 15: December 5, 7, 9
presentation of
term-papers
deadline for
submitting term-papers
deadline for
submitting final interpretive essay
You
are requested to write one major research paper to be submitted during the last
session, Friday, December 9. You will have to submit, however, a first draft of
this paper on Friday, November 18. The first draft should be as complete as
possible and follow the same presentation and writing guidelines as your final
draft, and it will count as 20% of your total grade unless the final draft is
of superior quality. The purpose of the first draft is to let you assess your
research and writing skills and improve the final version of your paper. It is
advisable that you choose a research topic and start preparing a bibliography
as soon as possible. I would strongly recommend that you consult with me before
making any final commitment. It would be preferable to keep the same topic for
both drafts. You will be allowed, however, after prior consultation, to change
your topic if you wish to do so.
You
may choose any topic related to the social, economic, political, or cultural
history of any Islamic society up to the early Ottomans. Even though papers on
the Ottoman Empire might be accepted pending on the subject, no paper should
cover contemporary twentieth-century topics. Papers should be analytical and
conceptual.
Avoid pure narratives and chronologies and construct your paper around a main
thesis.
Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of
Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1987. Intended for students and other writers of papers not written for
publication. Useful material on notes and bibliographies.
December 4: final draft deadline
submit your final
draft with your preliminary corrected one
Keep
in mind the following when preparing your preliminary and final drafts:
·
once
you’ve decided on a paper-topic and prepared a preliminary bibliography,
send an abstract and bibliography of your topic to the class-list <blackboard.luc.edu>
(see below). Your abstract should include: (i) title; (ii) description; (iii)
sources; (iv) methodology (e.g. suggestions on how to read sources). Your
preliminary draft will not be accepted unless you’ve submitted an on-line
abstract on November 11.
·
preliminary
drafts should be submitted on time, November 18.
·
preliminary
drafts should be complete and include footnotes and an annotated
bibliography.
(The Turabian reference above is annotated: it briefly spells what the book is
about and to whom it might be useful.)
·
do
not submit an outline as a first draft.
·
incomplete
and poorly written first drafts will not be accepted, and you’ll be
advised to revise your first draft completely.
·
if
you submit a single draft throughout the semester, you’ll receive F for
20% of the total and your final grade will be averaged accordingly.
·
the
oral presentation is an essential aspect of your grade; if you can’t
attend the last session, request an appointment.
·
your
final draft should take into consideration all the relevant comments provided
on your earlier draft:
·
all
factual and grammatical mistakes should be corrected, in addition to other
stylistic revisions.
·
passages
indicated as “revise” or “unclear” or
“awkward” should be totally revised.
·
when
specific additional references have been suggested, you should do your best to
incorporate them into your material.
·
there
might be several additional suggestions in particular on your overall
assumptions and methodology. It will be up to you to decide what to take into
consideration.
·
Submit
the final draft with your preliminary corrected one.
·
if
you’re interested in comments on your final paper and interpretive essay,
request an appointment by e-mail.
Please
use the following guidelines regarding the format of your papers:
·
use
8x10 white paper (the size and color of this paper). Do not use legal size or
colored paper.
·
use
a typewriter, laser printer or a good inkjet printer and hand in the original.
·
only
type on one side of the paper.
·
should
be double spaced, with single spaced footnotes at the end of each page and an annotated
bibliography
at the end (see bibliography below).
·
keep
ample left and right margins for comments and corrections of at least 1.25
inches each.
·
all
pages should be numbered and stapled.
·
a
cover page should include the following: paper’s title, course number and
section, your name, address, e-mail, and telephone.
This
course is listed on the Loyola Blackboard webpage to freely post messages and
conduct discussions: login at <blackboard.luc.edu>
and follow the instructions.
The
following bibliography is highly selective and restricted to books and articles
which are representative of a particular historical or
sociological/anthropological trend. Students are thus encouraged, when writing
their papers, to use more extensive bibliographies related to the topics they
are dealing with. Some of the
books for our weekly discussions include such bibliographies. (It would
wiser if you discuss with me your papers’ topics before you start writing.)
The
Qur’ân
is the holy book of the Muslims (in all their different factions and sects)
delivered by God in Arabic to the community of believers (umma) through the
“medium” of the prophet Muhammad in sessions of
“revelation” (wahî). Thus Arabic is not only the language of
the Qur’ân (and the Sunna), but also a divine language, the
language of God. All translations of the Qur’ân are thus considered
as illegitimate and inaccurate. There are several such “translations”/“interpretations”
available. A classical one would be that of A.J. Arberry, The Koran
Interpreted
(Oxford University Press). For a recent “reading” of the
Qur’ân, see Jacques Berque, Relire le Coran (Paris: Albin Michel,
1993).
R.
Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History. A Framework for Inquiry (Princeton University
Press, 1991), is a long annotated and commented bibliography, thematically
organized. Recommended for those looking at the best in the field for sources
available in English, French and German. Some references to primary sources,
mainly Arabic medieval sources, are also included. The problem with this
“inquiry” is that it excludes from its field all publications in
modern Arabic, as well as Turkish and Persian. In short, this book is an
excellent tool for a primary survey of the status of Middle Eastern Studies in
Europe and North America.
Marshall
G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago University Press, 1974), is a
landmark study on the “origins” of Islam and its historical
evolution into empires. Recommended for those interested in Islam within a
comparative religious and geographical perspective.
Ira
Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge University Press, 1988), is a
complete fourteen-century history of Islamic societies. Chapters vary in depth
and horizon. No particular focus—tedious to read. I haven’t read
the second edition: check it out.
Bernard
Lewis (ed.), The World of Islam (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), is a
thematically organized book with chapters on literature, jurisprudence, sufism,
the cities, the Ottoman and modern experiences. Includes hundreds of
illustrations and maps.
Watt,
W. M., Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953); Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1956), both are classics describing the life of the Prophet and his
first achievements in Mecca and Medina.
Franz
Rozenthal, A History of Muslim Historiography (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1952); 2d rev. ed., 1968.
Roy
Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton University Press,
1980), an excellent book, based on primary sources from Southern Iraq that
describe the process and concept of bay‘a in early Islamic
thought.
Hugh
Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History (London: Croom Helm,
1981).
Jacob
Lassner, The Shaping of Abbasid Rule (Princeton University Press, 1980).
Lassner,
Jacob, Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An Inquiry into the Art of
‘Abbâsid Apologetics (American Oriental
Series, number 66.) New Haven: American Oriental Society. 1986.
The
History of al-Tabarî (State University of New York Press, 1989), is a
multi-volume series of the translation of the “History” of
Tabarî, one of the major historians and interpreters of the
Qur’ân of the early Islamic and empire periods.
al-Shâfi‘î,
Risâla. Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence, translated by Majid
Khadduri (Islamic Texts Society, 1987). Shâfi‘î was the
founding father of one of the four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence and the
Risâla
contains some of his major theoretical foundations on the notions analogy, qiyâs, and the ijmâ‘, consensus of the
community.
Martin
Lings, Muhammad. His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, 1983).
Newby,
Gordon Darnell, The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest
Biography of Muhammad
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989).
Maxime
Rodinson, Muhammad
(Pantheon, 1971), is an interesting interpretation of the early Islamic period
based on a social and economic analysis of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of
Islam.
M.
A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New Interpretation, 2 vol. (Cambridge
University Press, 1971), is an attempt towards a new interpretation of the
‘Abbâsid Revolution of the eight century as a movement of
assimilation of Arabs and non-Arabs into an “equal rights” Empire.
Mohammad
Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Cambridge, 1991). See
also the great classic of Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan
Jurisprudence
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950).
Ignaz
Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law (Princeton University
Press, 1981).
Fred
Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton University Press, 1981),
reconstructs the early Islamic Conquests (futûhât) from a wealth of
Arabic chronicles and literary and ethnographic sources.
Bernard
Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago University Press, 1988),
discusses the notion of “government” and “politics” in
Islamic societies.
Ann
Lambton, Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia. Aspects of Administrative,
Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century (The Persian Heritage
Foundation, 1988).
Dominique
Urvoy, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (Routledge, 1991). Henry Corbin, Avicenna
and the Visionary Recital (Princeton University Press, 1960), is an analysis and interpretation
of Hayy ibn Yaqzân.
Salma
Khadra Jayyusi, editor, The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden: Brill, 1993).
See also L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500 (Chicago University
Press, 1990).
• Early &
medieval Islam
Al-Azmeh, Aziz. Muslim
Kingship,
London: I.B. Tauris, 1997, 2001.
Calder, Norman. Studies
in Early Muslim Jurisprudence, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.
Chamberlain, Michael. Knowledge
and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190-1350, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
Cook, Michael. Commanding
Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000.
Crone, Patricia, and
Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Ephrat, Daphna. A
Learned Society in a Period of Transition. The Sunni ‘ulama’ of
eleventh-century Baghdad, New York: State University of New York Press, 2000.
Hallaq, Wael B. Authority,
Continuity and Change in Islamic Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Lapidus, Ira M. Muslim
Cities in the Later Middle Ages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984
[1967].
“Madrasa,” Encyclopedia
of Islam,
2nd ed.
Makdisi, George. The
Rise of Colleges, Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West, Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 1981.
Rodinson, Maxime. Islam
et capitalisme,
Paris: Seuil, 1966; English translation available.
Schacht, Joseph. The
Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950.
“‘Ulama’,”
Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed.
Wheeler, Brannon M. Applying
the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning
in Hanafi Scholarship,
Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Religion
and Politics Under the Early ‘Abbasids: the emergence of the proto-Sunni
elite,
Leiden: Brill, 1997.
• The Ottomans
and modern Turkey
Berkes, Niyazi. The
Development of Secularism in Turkey, New York: Routledge, 1998.
Heyd, Uriel. “The
Ottoman ‘Ulema and Westernization in the Time of Selim III and Mahmud
II,” in Heyd (ed.), Studies in Islamic History, Jerusalem, 1961, 63-96.
Imber, Colin. Ebu’s-su‘ud:
The Islamic Legal Tradition, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.
Imber, Colin. The
Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
Inalcık, Halil.
“Suleiman the Lawgiver and Ottoman Law.” Archivum Ottomanicum I (1969): 105-38.
Repp, R.C. The
Müfti of Istanbul: A study in the development of the Ottoman learned
hierarchy, London,
1986.
Toprak, Binnaz.
“The Religious Right,” in Irvin C. Schick and Ertugrul Ahmet Tonak
(eds.), Turkey in Transition: New Perspectives, New York: Oxford
University Press, 1987.
Zilfi, Madeline C. The
Politics of Piety: the Ottoman ulema in the Postclassical Age (1600-1800), Minneapolis, MN,
U.S.A.: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988.
• Egypt, Syria
& Lebanon
‘Abdul-Raziq,
‘Ali. al-Islam wa-usul al-hukm, Cairo, 1925.
Botiveau, Bernard. Loi
islamique et droit dans les sociétés arabes, Paris: Éditions
Karthala, 1993.
Dsuqi, ‘Asim. Mujtama‘
‘ulama’ al-Azhar, 1895-1961, Cairo: Dar al-Thaqafa al-Jadida, 1980.
Hasan, Ahmad Husayn. al-Jama‘at
al-siyasiyya al-islamiyya wa-l-mujtama‘ al-madani, Cairo: al-Dar
al-Thaqafiyya li-l-Nashr, 2000.
Kepel, Gilles. Muslim
Extremism in Egypt,
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Mervin, Sabrina. Un
réformisme chiite, Paris-Beirut-Damascus: KARTHALA-CERMOC-IFEAD, 2000.
Mitchell, Richard P. The
Society of the Muslim Brothers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
Rashwan, Malik Muhammad
Ahmad. ‘Ulama’ al-Azhar bayna Bunabart wa-Muhammad ‘Ali,
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